Gene-ablation and other genetic technique

Gene-ablation and other genetic technique How has the use of gene-ablation and other genetic techniques in mice altered our approach to scientific problems in pharmacology and physiology? 280 pts (8-12 pages, 11pt Arial font, double spaced) A gene is a region of DNA that controls a discrete hereditary characteristic, usually corresponding to a single protein or RNA1. Most scientists are interested in determining how genes, and the proteins they encode, function in the intact organism. One of the most direct ways to find out what a gene does is to see what happens to the organism when that gene is missing. Because mutations can interrupt cellular processes, mutants often hold the key to understanding gene function. A well accepted strategy for evaluating gene function is to create and characterize a gene knockout mouse. Virtually any gene in the germ line can be mutated through gene targeting in totipotent embryonic stem (ES) cells or to use gene ablation technology to knock-out either a specific gene or a specific cell type in an intact animal2. Both of these methods offer almost unlimited possibilities for addressing questions concerning the molecular and cellular biology of development, the relationship between geneti cs and biological function, unraveling the causes of disease, and enhance pharmaceutical research. ES cells are a versatile source of cells for repair of damaged and defective tissues in the adult body2. Totipotent embryonic stem cells have been used in vitro to generated precursors for oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. Transplantation of these ES cells into a model mouse of human myelin disease allowed the precursors to interact with host neurons and efficiently myelinate axons in brain and spinal cord. Further investigation of this mechanism could lead to pharmacological, physiological and therapeutic treatments. ES cells also make possible the most precisely controlled forms of genetic modification, allowing animals to be created with virtually any desired alteration introduced into their genome2. One way to produce a transgenic (knockout) animal is through gene targeting in totipotent ES cells. By incorporating a null allele into one allele of murine ES cells, and injecting these cells into early mouse embryos, one can create chimeric mice (heterozygous for the knockout allele) containing tissues derived from both host cells and ES cells2. Mating the chimeric mice allows one to confirm that the null allele is incorporated into the germ line and can breed these heterozygous chimeric mice to homogeneity producing progeny that are homozygous knockout mice2. A knockout mouse generated to carry a mutating apolipoprotein E (apoE) gene through inactivation by gene targeting in embryonic stem cells can be used as a model for atherosclerosis. apoE is a constituent of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) synthesized by the liver and of a subclass of high density lipoproteins (HDLs) involved in cholesterol transport among cells. In humans a variant form of apoE, has been found to be defective in binding to the LDL receptor that is associated with familial type III hyperlipoproteinemia, a disease characterized by elevated plasma cholesterol and premature coronary heart disease. apoE deficient mice develop severe hypercholesterolemia due to a delayed clearance of large atherogenic particles from the circulation. A study was done to analyze the genesis of atherosclerotic lesions, including the nature of the cells involved, the sequence of cellular events and the anatomic location of specific lesion types over time on mice fed a normal or a high fat diet. They found that the lesions were distributed thought the arterial tree and contained many features of the specialized, chronic, inflammatory-fibroproliferative response characteristic of atherosclerosis with age. This mouse model is used to better understand the physiological role of apoE in lipid metabolism, atherogenesis, and nerve injury. The model can also be used as a way to test new pharmacological drugs in pre-clinical trials to determine drug interaction, new therapeutics or to develop variations of current drugs to better meet the needs of the vast array of genetic variability seen in the human population today. Gene ablation involves the homologous genetic recombination of a gene in such a way that the gene has been made â€Å"null†. Genetic ablation is a genetic engineering technique used to suppress selectively the growth of a specified cell line or cell type in an animal rather than suppress the activity of an individual gene2. Analyzing the in vivo function of cells can be accomplished through specific cell ablation. Using genetic ablation to produce a knockout mouse involves the injection of one or more transgenes (usually a DNA segment bearing its own promoter) into the pronucleus of a fertilized mouse oocyte, which, after reimplantation into a foster mother, gives birth to a transgenic mouse bearing one of several hundred copies of the transgene3. These mice again can be bred to produce a homozygous colony. An overexpression Sod2 transgenic mouse was generated through the use of pronuclear injection of the Sod2 gene into fertilized eggs. These mice overexpressed superoxide dismutase which catalyzes the conversion of superoxide anion to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen. Superoxide anions are reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in the respiratory chain as a byproduct of mitochondrial respiration. ROS cause oxidative damage to key mitochondrial components, such as protein, lipids and DNA. They are thought to lead to an overall decline in cellular function and ultimately determine the life span of an organism. Sod2 trangsenic mice have been used to test the effects of overexpressing MnSOD on mitochondrial function, levels of oxidative stress or damage and live span in mice. They found that a two fold increase of MnSOD throughout the life of the organism resulted in a slight decrease in oxidative damage and enhanced resistance against oxidative stress. Oxidative damage is also associated wit h arthritis, heart disease, gastrointestinal disorders, multiple sclerosis, cancer and neurological diseases. This model can be used to physiologically improve ones understanding of oxidative stress and to develop pharmaceutical agents that can enhance ones ability to decrease or protect against oxidative damage. Customized gene targeted animal models include constitutive knockouts or knock-ins, or conditional knockouts or knock-ins of known genes, a gene family, mutant genes or artificially created reporters and gene constructs. A constitutive knockout is a model that provides a broad overview of gene function, by the inactivation of the gene of interest at the genetic level, by random mutation or targeted insertion4. The advantage of using this model is that you get a total inactivation of the gene in any cell4. The disadvantage of this model is that the phenotypes can be complex since all organs are affected4. A conditional knockout is a model that provides a research model of high potential, by targeting tissue-specific inactivation of the gene of interest, through the use of recombinase4. Recombinase is an enzyme that deletes the DNA fragment located between the two recombinase-specific sites4. This tissue-specific expression of the recombinase allows the inactivation of the gene of inte rest only in the tissue were the recombinase is expressed4. There are two advantages to using this model, the first is the inactivation is restricted to specific tissues and the second is that several tissue-specific models can be made in parallel4. The disadvantages of using this model include the efficiency of the excision and the inability to validate the recombinase system4. There are a number of other strategies that can be used in place of, or to complement, conventional gene knockout technology. Two such examples are regulatable gene ablation and temporary gene ablation (gene knock downs). Ablation of a gene can be spatially or temporally regulated, that is only the organ of interest is affected or the mutation occurs only in one particular developmental state5. Through the use of a regulator, the promoter can be regulated to control gene expression in the organ or particular tissue of interest. A gene knockdown refers to the technique by which the expression of one or more of an organisms genes is reduced, either through genetic modification or by treatment with a reagent such as a short DNA or RNA oligonucleotide with a sequence complementary to either an mRNA transcript or a gene6. These approaches offer a rapid and economical method to examine the specific actions of a gene product at a particular time point. Genes can be transiently down-regulate d by targeted blockade of gene expression, either systemically or within a specific tissue. Two such approaches are antisense technology and the use of short interfering RNA (siRNA). Antisense technology is the use of short modified DNA sequences complementary to the mRNA of the gene of interest2. These sequences bind to the 5UTR and the beginning of the coding sequence therefore preventing translation initiation and blocking ribosomal interaction with the AUG start codon2. Antisense oligonucleotide genetic-code blocking drugs might control disease by inhibiting deleterious or malfunctioning genes. siRNA on the other hand, utilizes small lengths of double stranded RNA designed against the gene of interest and is introduced into the cell where they interact with intracellular machinery to form RNA-induced silencing complexes (RISCs)2. These complexes unwind the siRNA strands and allow specific binding to the complementary mRNA sequence2. This binding causes cleavage and destruction o f the now double stranded mRNA, and subsequently prevents translation2. siRNA can be used to study gene function, manipulating gene expression, as well as drug development. siRNA compounds can be created and delivered into human cells were they are able to silence genes and viruses responsible for human diseases. Two other genetic techniques that are used to approach gene investigation include suppressor analysis and reverse genetics. Suppressor analysis is used to identify genes that are functionally related to another gene of interest7. A suppressor mutation is a mutation that counteracts the effects of another mutation thereby reducing its phenotypic effect7. Suppressor mutations may be intragenic (in the same gene as the original mutation) or intergenic (in another gene)7. Intergenic suppressor mutations can be either information suppressors or function suppressors7. Of the two, function suppressors are most valuable for the genetic analysis of cellular processes7. Reverse genetics is a process in which specific mutations are introduced into a cloned gene for the purpose of identifying functional domains8. One way to conduct reverse genetics is to do RNA interference (RNAi)8. RNA interference is an in vivo gene knock-down, which is used to insert a random shRNA construct into the mouse ge nome4. Here, double-stranded RNAs inhibit corresponding gene expression by inducing degradation of its mRNA4. RNAi can be used as part of the immune response to viruses and other genetic material; it can also be used to look at downregulation and upregulation of genes4. RNAi has been used to evaluate whether insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP3) modulates gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) cell response. Here, transfection of siRNA to knockdown IGFBP3 gene into GIST cells resulted in a significant loss of cell viability and therefore found that IGFP3 gene is required for GIST cell survival. IGFBP3 gene expression is lost in many cancer cells and reintroduction of the protein often results in cell death. On the other hand IGFBP3 has been linked to renal cell carcinoma, breast cancer, and metastatic melanoma, which suggests that IGFBP3 may contribute to tumorigenesis or disease progression. By studying IGFBP3 and the IGF pathway one can explore IGF for prognostic an d therapeutic value in GISTs and other cancers. In order to develop new treatment and preventative strategies for a human disease, we must first understand the biology and pathogenesis of the human disease itself10. A way to study human gene function is by mouse gene humanization. Humanization is the replacement of the murine gene by its human counter part4. Animal models of human disease have been crucial in elucidating normal organ biology, pathogenic mechanisms of the disease and developing new therapeutic strategies10. Animal models are being used instead of human studies, because human studies are limited by a number of factors such as: the variability seen in genetic background and environmental influences, the inability to readily obtain human tissues for molecular analysis and the small numbers of patients who may have a particular genetic abnormality10. Transgenic animals have already made valuable research contributions to studies involving regulation of gene expression, the function of the immune system, genetic diseases, viral diseases, cardiovascular disease, and the genes responsible for the development of cancer. Transgenic animal models are most effective if they have both construct validity and face validity. Construct validity is the degree to which the model corresponds to the clinical state in humans. Face validity is the animal model responds in an appropriate manner to the effects of different therapeutic agents. An animal model that can recapitulate at least part of the neuropathology and the cognitive and behavioral impairment is the most effective representative of the disease. Several rodent models of Alzheimers disease (AD) have been created. The first example of such a model has been created to mimic the cholinergic deficits of AD patients and to investigate the role of the central cholinergic system in the cognit ive and behavioral deficits observed in AD9. The second example of such a model has been created with acute or chronic injections of amyloid beta within the brain parenchyma of rodents, to overexpress AD-related mutated protein (amyloid deposits) in the central nervous system of rodents9. A third model of AD has been to create a transgenic mouse to express wild-type or mutant forms of the human APP and/or PS genes. All three of these models provide many insights into AD pathogenesis and approached to new therapies. By exploring and understanding of the neuropathological processes underlying the cognitive deterioration leading to dementia and investigating of the effects of potential new treatments on both AD neuropathology and cognitive deficits we will be able to test drugs that could potentially alleviate symptoms of the disease. Transgenic animals have also been used to develop animal strains that secrete important proteins in milk2. These animals are used to synthesize recoverable quantities of therapeutically useful proteins. These proteins can be harvested from the animal by simply milking the animal and then using separation techniques for protein purification2. For example cows have been used to purify collagen which can then be used to indicate burns and bone fracture2. Pigs have been used to purify human hemoglobin as a blood replacement for transfusion2. Goats have been used to make monoclonal antibodies for colon cancer2. In addition sheep have been used to make factor VIII and factor IX for hemophilia2. Despite the large amount of knowledge that can be gained by knockout studies, there are some important considerations to be taken when investigating the role of a particular protein or gene of interest. These considerations include but are not limited to: redundancy, lethality, delineating systemic vs. local effects, subtle effects, and specific pathogen free conditions3. Gene redundancy is the existence of multiple copies of the same gene in the genome of an organism. This problem can be overcome to some extent by the use of multiple knockouts or in some situations where multiple ligands bind to the same receptor, a dominant negative receptor approach can knockout the effects of all ligands at once5. Lethality phenotypes severely compromise the ability of the organism to function. Some knockouts are developmentally lethal, which means that the genetically altered embryos cannot grow in adult mice. Knocking out a gene may also fail to produce an observable (phenotypic) change in a mo use or may even produce different characteristics from those observed in humans in which the same gene is inactivated. In some instances, a particular organ of interest can be transplanted into a healthy wild type host in order to conduct the analysis on that organ. Local effect refers to an adverse health effect that takes place at the point or area of contact, for example the respiratory tract11. Systemic effect refers to an adverse health effect that takes place at a location distant from the bodys initial point of contact and assumes absorption has taken place, i.e. absorption into the blood stream11. Subtle effects are those that are so slight as to be difficult to detect or describe. For example, small changes in nutrient delivery to the fetus can program post-natal and adult metabolic status and lead to increased susceptibility to a range of adult onset disease, including stroke, hypertension and non-insulin dependent diabetes5. Specific pathogen free conditions refers to the fact that laboratory mice in research institution are generally housed in a specific pathogen free environment, and are therefore not challenged with the array of pathogens most mice and humans are exposed to. When comparing transgenic models to humans a key difference could be in the initiation of the development or process in the mouse that may not have a similar mechanism as the human development or process it is thought to represent. The presence of a specific mutation in the mouse from the time of its conception may enable a distinction between phenotypic changes due to the mutation itself and changes caused by adaptation and compensation for the mutation12. A gene can also be expressed in different tissues where it may have different functions; its alteration may induce unexpected consequences. Also, the function of two genes may overlap or a mutation in a single gene might not reveal an abnormal phenotype. There is also a possibility of random incorporation into genome, which may inadvertently disrupt other genes, or have a variable degree of gene silencing success. The gene may also induce gross morphologic or physiologic abnormalities that affect the gene directly. Note also, thes e animal models also only play a minor role in drug development, as relatively few human diseases are monogenetic12. In most cases, gene ablation and other genetic techniques must address the basic question as to whether a particular gene, wild type, or mutant is involved in the pathogenesis of a particular disease. If not a particular disease, it may also address whether a gene product which plays a role in a specific signaling process contributes to disease in conjunction with other predisposing conditions. Animal models are crucial in providing a unified understanding of how drugs work, developing new therapeutic agents, and obtaining critical data needed to advance compounds into clinical trails12. Animal models are an important tool for scientist to investigate human diseases, especially in order to conduct time-course studies or when studying early disease. Transgenic and knockout animals are also used to determine the molecular mode of action of a gene product and the downstream consequences of its misexpression on normal processes. Assessing the role of a specific gene can know be accomplis hed through the use of transgenic animals whose genomes have been manipulated to under- or overexpress a target gene, or express it in a modified or defective, nonfunctional form12. Animal models represent an attempt to imitate the pathologies associated with human disease states in a preclinical setting12. References: Molecular Biology of the Cell. Alberts, et. al. 4th edition 2002 Garland Science New York, NY. Crommelin, D.J.A. and Sindelar, R.D. (1997). Pharmaceutical Biotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications, Third Ed. Taylor and Francis. Philadelphia, PA. Seidman, J.G. (2009) Manipulating the Mouse Genome. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. January 01. Reliable and Innovative Solutions for Transgenesis. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Ingman, WV. And Jones, RL. (2008). Cytokine knockouts in reporduciton: the use of gene ablation to dissect roles of cytokines in reproductive biology. Human Reproductive Update 14(2): 179-192. Gene knockdown. (2009, June 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:53, November 8, 2009, from Fay, D. and Johnson, W. (2006). Genetic mapping and manipulation: Chapter 10-Suppressor mutations. Accessed on 11/5/2009. Bio-Medicine. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Dodart, J.C. and May P. (2005) Overview on Rodent models of Alzheimers Disease. Current Protocols in Neuroscience. November 01. Lind J. and Semsarian C. (2006) Overview of Model Systems for the Analysis of Human Disease. Current Protocols in Human Genetics. February 01. Local vs. Systemic Health Effects. Accessed on 11/3/2009. Moser, P. (2009) Animal Models of Disease. Current Protocols in Pharmacology. September 01. Katz, D.A. (2007) Overview of Pharmacogenetics. Current Protocols in Pharmacology. March 01. Barash, CI. (2001)Ethical Issues in Pharmacogenetics. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Frequently Asked Questions about Pharmacogenetics. Accessed on 11/4/2009. Bustle, O., Jones, K.N., Learish R. D., et.al.(1999) Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Glial Precursors: A source of Myelinating Transplants. Science 5428(285): 754-756 Piedrahita, J.A., Zhang, S.H, Hagaman, J.R, Oliver, P.M, and Maeda N. (1992) Generation of mice carrying a mutant apolipoprotein E gene inactivated by gene targeting in embryonic stem cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:4471-4475. Nakashima, Y, Plump AS, Raines E.W, Reslow J.L, and Ross R. (1994) ApoE-deficient mice develop lesions of all phases of atherosclerosis throughout the arterial tree. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 14:133-140. Jang Y.C et.al (2009). Overexpression of Mn Superoxide Dismutase Does Not Increase Life Span in Mice. Journal of Gerontology:Biological Sciences. 64(11): 1114-1125. Dupart JJ. Et.al (2009). Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 has dual effects on gastrointestinal stromal tumor cell viability and sensitivity to the anti-tumor effects of imatinib mesylate in vitro. Mol Cancer Nov 10;8(1):99 (Epub ahead of print) PMID: 19903356 Genes associate with drug responses can be grouped into three broad categories: those involved in pharmacokinetics (i.e. drug metabolism, transport), those encoding pharmacological targets (i.e. drug-target pathways) and those with physiological associations (i.e. homeostasis pathways)13. Pharmacokinetic pathways mediate drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion13. Pharmacological pathways such as transcription factors and phosphorylation targets whose genes encode other proteins are also candidates for pharmacogenetic analysis13. Understanding the sensitivity of a particular drug and the genes that encode the drug metabolizing enzymes can help determine how the particular drug is transported and metabolized within the body. Understanding the gene variants and how they influence drug concentrations at the target site is a possible way to explain the differences in response to a particular drug dose among individuals. Pharmacogenetics is the study of how an individuals genetic differences influence drug action, usage and dosing2. The molecular compositions of enzymes are currently being identified through the use of the Human Genome Project. Scientists are able to study these enzymes and determine correlations between genotypic and phenotypic variability14. These current advances will allow scientists to use the molecular knowledge of enzymes to detect individuals who are likely to experience adverse reactions to medicines without having to use potentially dangerous methods of trial and error14. An offshoot of pharmacogenetics is pharmacogenomics, which attempts to understand not only the molecular composition of genetic variants associated with drug response but also the behavior of those variants14. Pharmacogenomic knowledge can be used to spot the disease before it occurs in a patient, increase drug efficacy upon pharmacotherapy, and reduce drug toxicity2. It could also facilitate the drug development process to improve clinical development outcomes, reducing overall cost of drug development and lead to development of new diagnostic tests that impact on therapeutic decisions2. Pharmacogenomics can be used by doctors to identify the optimal dose and medicine for each individual patient with greater efficacy and safety. As the dosage would be based on factors such as age, weight, diet, lifestyle, liver and kidney function. By using a pharmacogenetic test a doctor can determine the right dose for individual patients. There are phomacogenetic tests for cancer, HIV, depressio n, and cardiovascular disease15. These tests take in the factors which are most likely to affect the absorption and effectiveness of the drug. There are many benefits that can come from pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics. Pharmaceutical companies can use information obtained to create more powerful medicines based on proteins, enzymes, and RNA molecules associated with genes and diseases15. Again, doctors would be able to analyze a patients genetic profile and prescribe the best available drug therapy from the beginning instead of the standard trial and error method of matching patient with the right drugs. A more appropriate drug dosage could be determined by not only taking in a persons weight and age but also accounting for their individual body processes, such as the time it takes for their body to metabolize the drug. Pharmacogenetics could also provide advance screening for disease, better vaccines, improvements in the drug discovery and approval process and decrease the overall cost of health care15. Pharmacogenomics is still in the development stage in the research field. There are several factors that need to be overcome before many of the pharmacogenomic benefits can be realized. These include the complexity of finding gene variations that affect drug response, the limitation of current drug alternatives, disincentives for drug companies to make multiple pharmacogenomic products, and educating health care providers14. There are also ethical issues to consider, such as lack of data privacy, possibility that adverse reactions to drugs can occur during treatment, the cost of such designer drugs will be to expensive for everyone, and genetic testing can provide an array of diagnostic results (predisposal test) which may or may not be what the patient wants to know14.

Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee Essay

It is known how the cowboys won the West, as it is seen in so many films and TV shows that it seems impossible that anyone would not know about these tales. White civilized soldiers moving out of the East coast of the USA, having the wild natives and lands tamed. The wild natives who threatened the sovereignty and peace of the white Americans, on the contrary, Dee Brown paints a different picture, a story told from the other side of the fence, this tale is known as Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee was first published in 1970 and contains the history of Native Americans belonging to the West side of America in the late 19th century. The story narrates how the Native Americans were displaced and slaughtered by the Federal Government of United States. Bury my heart at Wounded Knee is the last phrase of a poem called â€Å"American Names† by Stephen Vincent Bennet. Brown starts the book by quoting what Columbus wrote to the Majesties of Spain, â€Å"So tractable, so peaceable, are these people that I swear to your Majesties there is not in the world a better nation. They love their neighbors as themselves, and their discourse is ever sweet and gentle, and accompanied with a smile; and though it is true they are naked, yet their manners are decorous and praise worthy†. (Brown, 5) Though, this did not seem to impress Columbus for long as the author states that Columbus saw this as a sign of weakness on the part of the Native Americans and being a European, he was convinced that the people should be made to work and do everything essential to adopt our ways. The massacre then continued for the next four hundred years until almost the total extinction of the Native Americans culture and civilization had been carried out. The Native Americans who are still alive, are proud cultural people residing in the land consigned to them by the government of USA, the land known as ‘Reservations’. The opening chapter of the book is a broad introduction to the hardship to follow, starting with Columbus and the entrance of Europeans in the Caribbean and down the Eastern seaboard. After the introduction, in which Brown explains that massacres and genocide have deep roots in the history of the American continent, even before the Wild West period, we reach the topic itself. Most of the documented history is of the thirty year period among the 1860s to 1890s. Fresh from the most gruesome era of USA history, when the self caused death count rose to the highest ever the country would experience, the Civil War of America reached a revolving point. As the now unified and stable government had returned, most of the population was charged up with the pioneering spirit and went into the unknown areas of the West, searching for new lives, freedom and quick riches. It was this migration which landed the white man at the doors of an ancient cultured establishment. Even though the Native Americans of the East, who were village based farmers, had been dealt with a long time back, the Native Americans belonging to the West coast were a diverse breed altogether and more dire measures had to be undertaken to deal with them. The Native Americans believes were very dissimilar from the white man’s culture and belief. The Native Americans believed that nothing was ever personally owned by them, as the land, the homes and everything that had been given to him were only loans to him and could be taken back anytime. Therefore, how could the Native American population sell the land that could not be owned by anyone? Yet, the white men took the land anyway, dislocating the Native Americans and setting up their own homes and families and brimming over the land in his place in a sign of greed and bloodshed. The USA adopted such policies making the Native Americans indebted to the government; this was done by transferring the Native Americans to low quality land and reservations and by the methodical destruction of the buffalo. The tribes would have to relay on the supplies from the white government and the only thing the Native Americans had to bargain was the land they resided at. Brown has used ancient manuscripts and actual texts of the white men and dominated Native Americans of that time to portray the route taken to acquire the land of the west by false arrests, kangaroo courts, unprovoked attacks, broken treaties and round-ups of Native Americans, forcing them onto desolate lands. Brown also narrates stories of particular Native Americans using certificated information; the great warrior known as Geronimo who battled the white men and the peaceful leaders of Native Americans known as Black Kettle who would try to sort out treaties through dialog and understanding. Black Kettle would look for ways to preserve the Native Americans’ open lands and at the same time settle the white men in the other areas of the west. Brown breaks down the time of the westward push through time-line, geographic areas, particular tribes and their chiefs and incidents that formed the history of the Native Americans’ termination by the hands of the government of the USA and the white settlers. The author ends the book with descriptions from the Native Americans who survived the carnage at Wounded Knee, a creek in South Dakota. As this was the last major butchery of the Native Americans by the USA soldiers. Many series of misunderstandings and blunders contributed to the mass killing of unarmed Native Americans that took place at Wounded Knee. At that 29th December of 1890, as much as 300 Native American men, woman and children were butchered. The following is a paragraph from the book, describing the events that took place at Wounded Knee Lake. â€Å"A mother was shot down with her infant; the child not knowing that its mother was dead was still nursing†¦ The women as they were fleeing with their babies were killed together†¦ and after most of them had been killed a cry was made that all those who were not killed or wounded should come forth and they would be safe. Little boys†¦ came out of their places of refuge, and as soon as they came in sight a number of soldiers surrounded them and butchered them there†. (Brown, 83) As all 19 chapters of the book narrate the battles, events and certain tribes, it is easy to say that Brown wished to go deep into detail which is also obvious with book consisting of 500 pages. However, some might say Bury my heart at Wounded Knee seems text-book like which bores the reader. Although the book seems to be appealing for me, as little is known about the genocide that took place in the West of USA and therefore, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee seems to be a magnificent and attractive learning instrument. Among Brown’s written Creek Mary’s Blood and Killdeer Mountains which were also about Native Americans, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee seems to be the greatest text of all. The author has included elements such as quotes, songs and portraits throughout the book to attract the reader. These elements play a strong part by breaking the chain of monotony of pages of texts. The quotes seem to be well chosen and positioned, so are the portraits and help present a well informed picture of the history. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee assists us to look into our shady past and examines it; the book explores how the white men tried to fulfill our Christian manifest destiny in American history. The white men are shown as discriminators, murderers and sadists, with the exemption of a few soldiers and civilians. These white men would kill Native Americans despite of gender or age, often mutilating and scalping the bodies, and sometimes even committing horrendous acts such as cutting the genitalia of Native Americans. These extraordinary and appalling revelations give the reader a horrifying image of the birth of the great country known as the USA. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee has its share of drawbacks such as any other book. I believe one of the greatest shortcomings is the language the author has used in some parts of the book. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee becomes complicated and could lose probable readers because of the lack of understanding of the used text. Although the book is an essential for any reader who is interested in history as the book reveals a lot, the vocabulary and writing techniques used may challenge the readers at times. The next drawback is that the book narrates similar tales, just with different tribes, which sends a monotonous tone through the book. Although, by writing in such a way, Brown indicated and clearly conveyed this influential point that no matter where the Native Americans turned to, they were butchered. With the shortcomings intact, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee remains a book which wins the heart of readers by telling a tale that is not really understood or identified, a nasty yet important part of the American history. The book is inclusive, yet only narrates the starting of what was being done in the name of war profiteering and manifest destiny. The author asks the reader to confront our history that may make us feel uneasy. There are always two sides of a story and the author has decided to tell us the story of the side that is rarely heard and spoken of. Brown has indeed achieved the goal he set out when he decided to write an account of this appalling mark of American history in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. Dee Brown wrote this book over thirty five years back, to redress and balance the history. This is the tale of the Apache, the Navaho, the Comanche, the Sioux and the story of Sitting Bull, of Geronimo and others. It is hard headedly researched and extremely detailed, at the same time interesting. The author’s sources of quotes were the journals, courts transcripts and other documents of the Native American people. These words indeed carried an intellectual, beautiful and expressive imagery of these cultural people. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee is a gloomy story of unkindness, racism, ignorance and prejudice you’ll ever read. The immoral perpetrated against the Native American people are of a scale beyond words, certainly ahead of any words of mine, or Brown’s, or even the arrogant, depressing, gorgeous descriptions of the Native Americans themselves. Yet, we must carry on to the future, with our evolving societies, knowing that no one can turn back the hands of time. The Native Americans can’t have their heritage, their land, or their way of life returned to them. Even though there is a need for testament for history and for the preserving of knowledge, customs and culture. There is no other way to learn from the past and go forward to our future if there is nothing to build upon. Bibliography Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West. Pocket Books, United States (1981)

British Petroleum and The Delay of Maintenance Case Analysis

British Petroleum, now known as simply BP, is a multinational oil and gas company that is headquartered in London, England. On March 23, 2005, a series of massive explosions devastated one of the largest British Petroleum refineries located in Texas City. The blast rattled windows in downtown Galveston, 20 miles away and was even felt in Houston, 35 miles distant. Reports indicated that 15 people had been killed and well over 150 were injured, many of those seriously burned.A BP spokesperson addressed the media by explaining how the explosion had occurred while an â€Å"isomerization unit of the plant was being brought back on stream to full production after having been shut down for annual inspection and repair† (Hosmer, 49). As the families of those killed in the explosion mourned their losses, BP pledged to a â€Å"long and intensive investigation to determine the cause of the explosion† (Hosmer, 49). These promises were cut short when accounts of prior problems at B P refineries began to present themselves.Reports revealed that a year ago from the day of the most recent explosion, a blast occurred at the same processing unit of the Texas refinery. No deaths or injuries resulted, but a U. S Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) investigation indicated violations of 14 standard operating procedures. Furthermore, merely a week prior to the Texas City explosion, BP was reported to have settled a large lawsuit claiming that their company had failed to; properly maintain huge storage tanks and improperly falsify the maintenance records of those very storage tanks.A far more condemning report in the September of 2005 found hundreds of safety violations related to a venting system at the isomerization unit, seen to not have been working properly. As a result, the OSHA imposed a probationary period, in which, BP had to request permission from the agency to start up old isomerization units, report all accidents and injuries, and hire outsi de professionals to review all refinery safety programs and procedures. BP began accepting wider responsibilities and planned to spend more than $1 billion on improving maintenance procedures.However, the company began to lose its credibility as yet another study revealed that the same isomerization tower that had leaked flammable gases to cause the deadly March 23 explosion, had leaked those same gases not once before, but eight times (Hosmer, 59). Two separate accounts of whistleblowing helped the OSHA conclude that BP’s lack of maintenance and worker training was a result of their continual demands to reduce fixed costs, which of course, the senior officials of BP denied.Stakeholder Analysis In a case that involves such environmental destruction, fines, lawsuits and more importantly, the loss of human life; a wide variety of stakeholders are affected. The first primary social stakeholder is of course the central company to the case itself- British Petroleum, consisting of all its officials and executive members. To commence, since BP is the party being sued for the massive explosion at the Texas City refinery, it has a tremendous amount of stake in the case.BP possesses a high interest in this situation, as it is their reputation and profits that evaporate with all of the proceeding lawsuits and investigations. In the same way, they possess high power because they have the full authority and financing to regularly maintain their production facilities and sufficiently train their staff. Referring to the typology of stakeholder attributes, it is clear that BP has high power, high legitimacy, high urgency and a close proximity in this case.As mentioned earlier, BP attains a great deal of power because their decisions are the root cause of the problem. The fact that BP is the defendant in all its major lawsuits, and has so much at stake gives it high legitimacy. Not only that, but the situation for BP is very urgent as the majority of their facility is d amaged and unable to produce any profits for the company. BP definitely possesses close proximity to the case, with their facility and management all situated at the explosion.All of these characteristics prove BP as a definitive stakeholder that can be harmed through the bad publicity; countless lawsuits, fines and investigations; damage to multi-billion dollar refinery; and loss of profits. The only possible benefit for BP in this pool of harms is that this explosion gives them an opportunity to rebuild the refinery with new, safer technology that abides standard operating procedures. BP claims that the massive explosion is a result of highly complicated chemical processes and even places blame on its employees for â€Å"operational mistakes†.The government agency OSHA thinks otherwise, and imposes their legal right to a probationary period on BP and its operations. BP thinks they are in no wrong, but they are denied the right to appeal for a shorter probationary period as the delay of proper maintenance is confirmed as the cause of the destruction (â€Å"csb. gov†). Moving on, another primary social stakeholder affected by the explosion of the Texas City BP refinery, is the employees and managers of the facility itself. Many employees working in the facility have lost their lives and suffered life-threatening injuries.For this reason, their interest in the situation is very high as their health and well-being is placed in jeopardy. In addition, due to the explosion, these workers are unable to earn wages to support their families. These employees have very limited power because they have no control over the decisions made by BP to properly maintain their facilities. Consequently, the employees and managers of the BP refinery have low power, high legitimacy, high urgency and a very close proximity to the case.To further explain, their measure of low power is the result of their position on the BP ladder. They simply carry out the orders enforce d by BP officials such as cutting â€Å"costs by 25 percent† (Hosmer, 53), without paying much attention to the consequences. They also possess high legitimacy with their life and loss of employment at stake. Their urgency is high as they are unable to earn wages and must resort to external sources of income to provide for their loved ones. Also, those injured in the incident must seek medical attention very urgently.Lastly, the employees clearly have close proximity as they work and reside in the vicinity of the facility that has been damaged with the blast. This combination of attributes deems the managers and employees a dependent stakeholder, which is reliant on the BP officials to carry out their will. These members of the case have virtually no benefit from the explosion. Due to the dangerous working conditions and BP’s high expenditures on the explosion, they are harmed with a possible risk of injury or death and potential job loss.Prior to the accident, these s takeholders were denied the legal right to an adequate training regime, which may have been a factor in the blast as stated in an interim report issued by BP (Hosmer, 50). The workers of BP were also denied their legal right to a union, further addressing their lack of power and independency in the case. Finally, a third stakeholder affected by the massive blast of the BP refinery is the U. S Government, but more specifically, the federal agency OSHA (Occupation Safety and Health Administration).Unlike the others, this secondary social stakeholder has a public or special interest stake in the case that is more indirect. The OSHA has a tremendous amount of power and interest given that it is in their authority to ensure BP’s business practices align with the standard operating procedures and provide safe work environments for the citizens of their nation. This secondary stakeholder can also be classified as a definitive stakeholder due to its high power, high legitimacy, high urgency and close proximity to the case.To elaborate, the OSHA has issued lawsuits, fines, investigations and even a probationary period on the practices of BP and will continue to do so until the proper production requirements are met, giving them tremendous power. They possess high legitimacy and high urgency as it is in their right to prevent any future incidents that could lead to the loss of human life and mass environmental damage, in the shortest possible time period. Clearly the U. S government, with all its branched locations, has close proximity to the accident and all key stakeholders involved in the case. Though the OSHA may benefit from showing positive involvement (i.e. investigation reports, fines etc. ) in the eyes of the public, the incident may actually decrease other countries’ investing interests. As touched upon earlier, the government has exercised their legal right to issue fines, suspensions and in-depth investigations. Through this extensive process a nd help from the media, the OSHA has been able to bring the amoral actions of the BP Company to the public’s eye, concluding that; regular maintenance of the production facility would have been enough to prevent the immense explosion. Define the Complete Moral Problem State the moral problem in a â€Å"complete† question form.Is it ethically permissible for the BP Company to ignore and delay the maintenance requirements of their Texas City refinery given that: 1) the massive explosion caused 15 deaths and over 150 life-threatening injuries; 2) the employees, managers, local communities and environment are placed in a volatile situation; 3) it is one of the largest refineries located in the United States; 4) BP settled a large lawsuit claiming that it had (1) failed to properly maintain huge storage tanks and (2) improperly falsify the maintenance records for those storage tanks† a week prior to the explosion (Hosmer, 50); 5) the same isomerization tower that leak ed the flammable gases to cause the March 23 explosion, had leaked those same gases eight times before; 6) a blast had occurred at the same gas processing unit of Texas City refinery a year prior to the March 23 explosion; 7) they were charged millions of dollars by the OSHA after finding hundreds of alleged safety violations in their facility; 8) they falsely pledged to a â€Å"long and intensive investigation to determine the cause of the explosion† (Hosmer, 49); 9) they were trying to cut costs by 25 percent after realizing an after-tax profit of $15. 7 billion? Characterize the Moral Problem Why is this a moral problem? According to Hosmer, a moral problem is a situation â€Å"in which the firm’s financial performance and social performance are in conflict† (Hosmer, 55). To further elaborate, a moral problem can present itself when a company disregards the needs and rights of its stakeholders in the pursuit of profit and financial reward. These are the situa tions when some individuals or groups to whom the organization has some form of obligation, such as employees and customers, are going to be harmed while others will be benefitted.In considering the issue involving the explosion of the Texas City refinery, it is clear to see that BP disregards the rights of its employees, managers and local communities by continually operating â€Å"rusty, unsafe and unmaintained systems† (Wolf), in order to cut costs and reap a greater financial reward. We can clearly see the direct relationship between the parties that have been harmed and denied their rights, as compared to those that are benefitted and profit from this decision, ultimately creating a conflict between financial and social performance. Thus, this issue is a moral issue. Define the kind of moral issue involved in the problem. To specify, the kind of moral issue present in the case is both a violation of justice and rights.In terms of justice, the OSHA, a branch of the U. S g overnment confirms that BP is in violation of fourteen standard operating procedures and hundreds of other safety violations. Moreover, a week prior to the explosion, BP settled a large California lawsuit as it claimed that it had failed to properly maintain storage tanks and improperly falsified the maintenance record for those storage tanks. With their decision to ignore maintenance, BP is breaking the federal law in order to increase profit and others are being harmed for it. Two cases of whistleblowing revealed that BP managers were ordered by senior officials to â€Å"cut costs by 25 percent† (Hosmer, 53).This is simply unfair for parties with close proximity to the case, such as the refinery staff, as they are unable to maintain a facility, which they know for certain, is dangerous â€Å"with its interrelated valves, controls, tanks, flares and alarms- found to not have been working properly† (Hosmer, 50). In terms of it being a rights issue, BP has violated seve ral positive legal rights and laws. For example, BP initially places blame of the Texas City explosion on its workers for â€Å"operational and supervisory mistakes† (Hosmer, 50). By making this claim, BP is violating the positive legal right to adequate employee training. Furthermore, these very individuals working inside the BP refinery are denied the positive legal right to a safe working environment. The massive blast is, as determined a result of BP’s ignorance of necessary repairs.Thus, BP is responsible for violating their employees’ positive legal right to work and provide for their families as well. Therefore, rights and justice are presented in this case. Due to the rights violated and lack of justice, this is definitely a moral problem. Determine the Economic Outcomes The concept of Pareto Optimality is key for determining the economic outcomes. Pareto Optimality refers â€Å"to a condition in which the scare resources of society are being used so ef ficiently by the producing firms, and the goods and services are being distributed so effectively by the competitive markets, that it would be impossible to make any single person better off without harming some other person† (Hosmer, 27).In order to achieve Pareto Optimality; all markets must be competitive; all customers and suppliers must be informed; and all costs must be included. In the case of BP’s Texas City refinery, the condition that states all internal and external costs must be included is violated. BP fails to recognize the costs necessary to maintain their facility, which results in the massive March 23 explosion. For example, when it was discovered that the same isomerization tower that leaked the flammable gases to cause the March 23 explosion, had leaked those same gases eight times before, all costs to repair the facility were ignored and operations were continued as normal.In addition, BP fails to include; the costs associated with the loss of employ ee wages caused by the destruction of the refinery; and the costs of tarnishing the health reputation of local communities. While BP does recognize the costs to mitigate their environmental impact and compensate for all victims, such expenditures only represent a small fraction of the total social and environmental damage caused by their operations. Also, all customers and suppliers are not informed of BP’s practices, thus, they are in violation of another Pareto Optimality condition. Hosmer explains that all parties â€Å"must be knowledgeable about the features of the products and standards of the company† (Hosmer, 8).BP does not disclose all information regarding their products and standards, in fact, generates corrupt documents in the process. This was evident when BP attempted to conceal a large California lawsuit, in which â€Å"they pleaded guilty to not properly maintaining, and falsifying the maintenance reports of huge storage tanks† (â€Å"dol. gov. com†). Without all necessary information, parties cannot make rational choices and express true preferences. In this situation, we cannot take the action that will generate the greatest profit for the company because this will definitely not generate the greatest benefit for society since all costs are not included and all information is not available.This moral problem cannot be solved economically or by applying Pareto Optimality because human-well being is still being jeopardized for a marginal profit to BP, even when an after-tax profit of $15. 7 billion is realized. Consider the Legal Requirements The law in a democratic society is the minimum collective standard that we hold people accountable to. In this case, the laws that must be obeyed by BP and its operations are the United States government regulations imposed on petroleum industries. In the time leading up to and following the devastative explosion, BP has failed to comply with a significant number of legal requir ements. In 2004, BP was cited for 14 alleged violations of standard operating procedures at their Texas City refinery.In September 2005, seven months after the explosion central to this case, the OSHA found hundreds of safety violations that it called â€Å"egregious and willful† (Hosmer, 50). Not only was BP in violation of their legal operational rights, they also denied their staff the legal right to a safe work environment. However, since the outbreak of BP’s actions, the U. S government has been active in ensuring that all legal requirements are met. Following the September 2005 report, the OSHA levied a record size fine of $21. 4 million on BP. Also imposed, was a three-year probationary period in which BP â€Å"had to request permission from the agency before starting up old refinery units and report all accidents and injuries, regardless of cause, to the agency on a regular basis† (Hosmer, 51).Now, although the OSHA was able to bring some positive change , there are still problems with the law relevant to the case. Initially, the aforementioned government agency lacked adequate information to impose the necessary regulations upon BP that would force them to maintain their facilities properly. Due to the fact that BP was falsifying their maintenance reports and managing to stay clear of the media, it was not until a series of in-depth investigations after the Texas City incident that the OSHA was able to reveal the company’s maintenance fraud. The legal information observed in this case tends to lag behind the necessary regulations and moral standards of society, proving that the law is flawed by lengthy delays.Due to the missing adequate information and lengthy delays, simply obeying the law will not solve the moral problem. The government takes action after investigating the cause, which is not up to par with society’s needs especially when human well being is being jeopardized. Even with federal regulations in place, in 2006, BP caused â€Å"the largest oil spill on the North Slope of Alaska† because their major pipeline â€Å"was found to have been poorly maintained, to be badly rusted, and to require total replacement† (Hosmer, 52). BP is operating against the law, even though they possess adequate information on their social and environmental consequences. The government regulations such as the $21.4 million fine as observed in the case, are â€Å"much more a minor matter for BP, [who] had reported an after-tax profit of $15. 7 billion† (Hosmer, 50). Thus, the law cannot be used to solve this moral problem as BP is both lawful and immoral. Evaluate the Ethical Duties In order to propose a solution to a moral dilemma as such, it is crucial to analyze the ethical duties of BP and the various ethical theories that apply. First, the principle of Personal Virtues comes in to play. It implies that one should â€Å"never take any decision or action that is not open, honest and truthful, and one that you would feel proud to see widely reported† (Hosmer, 99). It is clear that BP’s actions have directly violated this principle.Their decision to knowingly delay the maintenance of their problematic facility without informing many key stakeholders is definitely not open. BP also settled a lawsuit in which they â€Å"falsified the maintenance records for storage tanks† (Hosmer, 50), which is neither honest nor truthful. The key stakeholders in the case, such as the management of the refinery have not been open, honest and truthful, thus, cannot be proud of their decisions. This is seen in a two cases of whistleblowing where a manager of the Texas City refinery â€Å"claimed that he had been ordered to cut costs by 25 percent in early 2005† and another BP executive â€Å"had been directed to keep his maintenance expenditures low† (Hosmer, 53).Since both of these members of the BP Company were â€Å"laid off† following the press release, it is clear that BP did not want the leaked information widely reported. Therefore, BP violates the principle of Personal Virtues. Moving on, the theory of Utilitarian Benefits is one that takes an instrumental approach, assigning costs and benefits to an outcome. It states that one should â€Å"never take any decision or action that does not generate greater benefits than harms for the society of which you are a part† (Hosmer, 99). Based on the classical version of theory, from which, actions are judged solely in terms of their consequences, BP is in serious violation. Their decision to ignore maintenance requirements and operate under dangerouscircumstances leads to a massive blast that has virtually no benefits for the society, other than the fact that BP is provided with an opportunity to rebuild a safer, more secure facility. This benefit is very minute so we can assign it a 4 out of 10. Diametrically, the aforementioned decision creates numerous harms to society such as; 15 deaths and over 170 injuries; major environmental damage; loss of jobs and much more. Being of such importance, it is only fitting that we assign these outcomes with higher values such as 10,8 and 7 out of 10, respectively. Adding up the scores for the benefits and harms, we clearly see that the harms outweigh the benefits, thus, there is overwhelming evidence to infer the Utilitarian Benefits principle is violated.Furthermore, the principle of Universal Duties implies that you should â€Å"never take any decision or action that you would not be wiling to see others, faced with the same or a closely similar situation, be free and even encourage to take† (Hosmer, 99). In the case of BP, their actions directly defy the categorical imperative of the Universalizability Principle, which implies that you should act only according to the maxim you are willing to universalize. If BP universalized their behaviour of ignoring maintenance requirements in oil refiner ies or their disregard to employee safety and well-being, several catastrophic industrial incidents could occur causing deaths, injuries, environmental damage and an overall decrease in the quality of life.In fact, universalizing this behaviour would be self-defeating as the lack of clean water and resources would hinder the growth of petroleum industries. Looking at the Respect version of the categorical imperative, it is clear that BP is once again in violation. The principle explains how one should use humans â€Å"always as an end and never as a means only† (Hosmer, 96). The BP Company uses their employees as merely a means to an end by ordering them to carry out duties within the refinery. Given the numerous risks present in the workplace, the workers are treated as objects with very little care and value, useful only in achieving the company’s aim. BP does not abide with the both aspects of the categorical imperative; therefore, it violates the Universal Duties p rinciple.Another ethical duty worth evaluation is the principle of Distributive Justice. This theory mentions that moral standards are based on the primacy of a single value, justice, and that â€Å"everyone should act to ensure a more equitable distribution of benefits and burdens†, because this promotes individual self respect, essential for cooperation (Hosmer, 100). This theory, unlike the others, is hypothetical and teleological. If we were to conduct a thought experiment, whereby we imagine ourselves in the original position behind the veil of ignorance, it is clear that BP’s actions violate the Difference principle. Behind the veil of ignorance, we are unaware of our socioeconomic status.However, we are in the original position, which means we are interested in ourselves and those that who we care about to succeed; thus, we would want benefits and burdens to be distributed equitably, as we do not know which party we belong to. The least advantaged members of the society include the workers of the BP refinery since they earn low labour wages, taking orders from BP managers and senior officials. With BP’s decision to ignore the gas leaks, rusty pipelines and delay future maintenance of their refinery, high proximity employees are placed in a very volatile situation. They can very possibly encounter life-threatening injuries or death.BP’s actions fail to benefit the least advantaged members of society, which is unfair. Consequently, BP is not acting in their right moral duty. Moreover, the decision to delay maintenance destroys the BP refinery and does not provide the workers with increased employment (or any employment for that matter). Due to the facts outlined, the social and economic inequalities created through BP’s amoral actions are not justified. By means of a though experiment, it is evident that an equitable distribution of benefits and burdens is one that benefits the least advantaged members of society. The fi nal ethical duty is Contributive Liberty or Libertarianism.In the same way, it explains that moral standards are based on the primacy of a single value, which is liberty, and that â€Å"everyone should act to ensure greater freedom of choice† as this promotes market exchange, essential for social productivity (Hosmer, 100). Applying this theory, it becomes clear that BP’s actions are in violation with this principle. A few stakeholders, such as employees have their negative rights violated with the explosion, as they are unable to work and earn wages in a dangerous facility lacking maintenance repairs. More importantly, they are not ensured greater freedom of choice because even though they can see the flaws located in the refinery, they must proceed with the instructions from management. In the same way, the management is also denied a freedom to maintain the facility as they are ordered to â€Å"cut costs by 25 percent† or otherwise, risk losing their position s.By suppressing the freedom of these two stakeholders, BP is liable for the massive blast which shuts down the supply of BP petroleum and gas products; ultimately, obstructing efficient market exchange and violating the principle of Contributive Liberty. Propose and Defend a Solution After determining the economic outcomes, considering the legal requirements and evaluating the ethical duties, it is appropriate to make my recommendation. My proposed solution to BP’s moral problem is to make its most disadvantaged stakeholders better off and implement an ‘Employee Workplace Evaluation Program’ as a part of BP’s regular operations. It is important to note that this case has already been â€Å"solved† legally through BP being sued, fined and placed on a probationary period, however, it does not help the moral situation as the law cannot solve anything morally.BP is already mitigating its environmental impact through financial compensation, but my solut ion involves them to start by personally apologizing to each and every family they have harmed through the explosion of the refinery. Next, BP needs to work with local communities to provide long-term health care, food and other services to those families that have either lost or suffered an injury to an earning loved one. In my opinion, this is the least a multi-billion dollar oil corporation can do to begin righting its amoral actions. The second step in my solution entails BP implementing an Employee Workplace Evaluation Program or EWEP, with overview from government authorities (OSHA).This will give the workers inside BP facilities an opportunity to report on various aspects of their job such as; the safety of the equipment; specific work instructions from their boss; any hazardous occurrences (regardless of magnitude); all of which, are relevant to the cause of the March 23 explosion. With the use of an EWEP, all information is openly available, honest and truthful from the emp loyee’s perspective, thus conforming to principle of Personal Virtues. The solution also holds true for Utilitarian Benefits as the benefits of helping families recover from devastation and ensuring the future safety of employees, greatly outweighs the harms. Finally, by providing employees with the freedom of speech, BP will be able to align with the principle of Contributive Liberty and create more secure and productive work environments.

What to Do If You Know Someone Is Cheating in College

Its inevitable that  no matter where you go to college there is undoubtedly someone cheating at your school. It could be a total shock when you find out or it could be absolutely no surprise at all. But what are your options -- and obligations -- if you learn that someone is cheating in college? Deciding what to do (or, as the case may be, what not to do) can take a lot of serious time and reflection -- or it might be a snap decision made easy by the situations circumstances. Either way, make sure youve considered the following when faced with a friend or fellow students cheating behavior. Your Obligations Under Your Schools Code of Conduct You might be a pretty conservative student who has never given your schools code of conduct or student handbook a second glance. At some institutions, however, you may be required to report when you know another student is cheating in college. If thats the case, then your decision to notify a professor, academic advisor or staff member (like the Dean of Students) about the cheating takes on a different tone. Are you willing to sacrifice your own success at your school because of someone elses poor choices? Or are you under no institutional obligation to let someone know about cheating you suspect or witnessed? Your Personal Feelings on the Subject Some students might be completely intolerant of others cheating; some might not care one way or the other. Regardless, theres really no right way to feel about cheating -- its just what feels right for you. Are you okay letting it slide? Or will it bother you on a personal level not to report it? Will it upset you more to report the cheating or not to report the cheating? How will it change your relationship with the person you suspect of cheating? Your Comfort Level With Reporting the Situation (or Not) Think, too, about how you would feel if you left the cheating and cheater alone. How does this compare with how you would feel if you  turned your friend or classmate in? Try to walk yourself through the rest of the semester. How would you feel if you never reported the cheating and watched this student sail through the rest of the term? How would you feel if you did report the cheating and then had to deal with being interviewed by staff or faculty? How would you feel if you confronted the cheater directly? Theres already some conflict between you and the cheater, even if its unspoken at this point. The question then becomes how you feel about addressing that conflict and with the consequences of doing so (or not!). The Impact of Reporting or Not Reporting If youre sharing a class with the suspected cheater and everyone is graded on a curve, your own academic performance and college success will be directly affected by this students dishonest actions. In other situations, however, you might not be affected at all. At some level, however, everyone will be affected, since a cheating student is gaining an unfair advantage over his or her fellow (and honest) students. How does the cheating have an impact on you on a personal, academic, and institutional level? Who You Can Talk to for More Advice or to File a Complaint If youre not sure what to do, you can always talk to someone anonymously or not reveal the name of your friend/classmate. You can find out what your options are for filing a complaint, what the process would be like, if your name would be given to the person who you suspect is cheating and any other consequences that might occur. This kind of information might actually encourage you to report cheating in college to a professor or administrator, so take advantage of the opportunity to have all your questions answered before making a decision one way or another. After all, if youre faced with the awkward situation of having someone you know engage in cheating behavior, you have the power to decide how best to resolve the situation in a way that makes you feel most comfortable.